Angola, a country with a rich history of colonial struggle, has experienced a complex political evolution marked by its fight for independence, a protracted civil war, and establishing a dominant-party system led by the MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola). The nation’s political scene has been significantly shaped by its colonial past under Portuguese rule, the subsequent war for independence, and the long-standing civil conflict that ensued post-independence. This article details dos Santos’s life, policies, and legacy.
Early Life and Education
José Eduardo dos Santos’s life and political journey are central to understanding Angola’s contemporary history. Born on August 28, 1942, in Luanda, Angola, dos Santos grew up when his country was still under Portuguese colonial rule. This environment, marked by systemic oppression and the fight for independence, shaped his early perspectives and commitment to political activism.
Dos Santos’s early education was in Luanda, where he demonstrated a keen interest in electronics and radio engineering. His intellectual promise led him to pursue further studies abroad, a rare opportunity that took him to the Soviet Union—an ally of the MPLA. He studied petroleum engineering there at the Azerbaijan Oil and Chemistry Institute in Baku, graduating in 1969. This education equipped him with valuable technical skills and exposed him to Marxist-Leninist ideology, aligning him with the MPLA’s political orientation.
Early Political Context in Angola
Under Portuguese rule, Angola’s path to independence was fraught with challenges. The liberation struggle was marked by a concerted effort from various nationalist movements, culminating in a protracted war of independence that eventually led to the end of colonial rule in 1975.
The MPLA emerged as a leading force in the fight for independence, advocating for a Marxist-Leninist governance model. Its establishment laid the groundwork for Angola’s future political direction, with the MPLA securing its position as the ruling party post-independence.
Besides the MPLA, other significant movements, such as UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), played crucial roles in the independence struggle. These movements’ ideological and power conflicts set the stage for the civil war.
dos Santos’ Journey into Politics
dos Santos joined the MPLA in the early 1960s, drawn by its commitment to ending colonial rule and establishing a socialist state. His involvement deepened after his return to Angola, where he quickly rose through the ranks due to his education, technical skills, and political acumen. Before becoming president, he held several key positions within the MPLA-led government, including that of the Minister of Foreign Affairs. These roles placed him at the heart of Angola’s struggle for sovereignty and post-independence reconstruction, allowing him to develop a comprehensive understanding of the internal dynamics and the international relations crucial for Angola’s future.
The death of Angola’s first president, Agostinho Neto, 1979 created a power vacuum that dos Santos was positioned to fill. His ascent to the presidency was not merely a product of chance; it resulted from his deep engagement in the MPLA’s political and military struggles, his technical and diplomatic skills, and his ability to navigate the party’s internal factions. Taking over in a period marked by the ongoing civil war and significant external interventions by superpowers and neighbouring countries, dos Santos faced the immense challenge of leading a nation through turmoil.
José Eduardo dos Santos: Rise to Leadership
dos Santos joined the MPLA in his youth. His early engagement in political activism and education abroad prepared him for a prominent role in Angola’s post-independence government.
Taking the helm in 1979, dos Santos faced the daunting task of navigating Angola through a civil war, with the MPLA and UNITA vying for control. His leadership style, characterised by pragmatism and focused on maintaining power, defined his early presidency.
The Civil War in Angola
The Angolan Civil War, lasting from 1975 to 2002, was a devastating conflict that profoundly impacted the nation. The MPLA and UNITA’s battle for dominance, fueled by Cold War geopolitics, resulted in significant loss and hardship. Under dos Santos’s leadership, the MPLA sought military victories and diplomatic solutions, leveraging international support to bolster its position against UNITA. The prolonged conflict severely damaged Angola’s infrastructure and had a profound effect on its population, leading to widespread displacement and loss of life.
International Influence and Support
The Soviet Union and Cuba supported the MPLA and provided crucial military and economic aid for its efforts against UNITA. This support underscored the Cold War dynamics influencing Angola’s civil war. The global Cold War rivalry manifested in Angola, with the United States and South Africa backing UNITA. At the same time, the Soviet Union and Cuba supported the MPLA, making Angola a significant battlefield in the global ideological struggle.
Read Here: The Angolan War of Independence and Civil War
Angola’s Oil Economy and Dos Santos’s Legacy
During his time in office, José Eduardo dos Santos initiated several economic reforms to transition Angola from a socialist to a market-oriented economy. This shift was a broader move away from the country’s previous Marxist-Leninist ideology towards social democracy. His government worked towards liberalising the economy, mainly focusing on the development of the oil sector, which became a cornerstone of Angola’s economy and led to its status as one of Africa’s leading oil producers.
While there were efforts to improve education, health, and social welfare, the outcomes of these policies were mixed. Angola experienced rapid economic growth during dos Santos’s presidency, especially following the end of the civil war. However, despite the country’s classification as a middle-income economy, it was characterised by extreme inequality, with a significant portion of the population living in poverty.
Critics have highlighted political repression and human rights abuses during dos Santos’s tenure, pointing to the challenges of governance in a context marked by prolonged conflict and centralised power. There were widespread allegations of corruption and nepotism, with the oil and gas boom of the 1990s and beyond bankrolling an extensive patronage network that permeated the highest levels of government and the MPLA party.
The heavy reliance on oil income, accounting for 95 per cent of the economy, led to a situation where a few local elites and individuals close to the dos Santos family held considerable stakes in vital economic sectors. State capture became a significant issue, with undue influence over policies and regulations enabling the appropriation of public resources for private gain.
As Angola is one of Africa’s wealthiest countries in terms of resources, it is also among the most indebted, with a high debt-to-GDP ratio. The country’s heavy borrowing, particularly from China, has implications for its economic recovery and management of external debts. These financial challenges and the concentration of wealth among a small elite have led to questions about the equitable distribution of oil revenues and the overall benefits of economic growth for the Angolan population.
Post-Dos Santos Era and His Legacy
The transition to João Lourenço in 2017 marked a new chapter in Angola’s political landscape, with promises of reform and tackling corruption. His successor initiated some anti-corruption measures and sought to introduce reforms to reduce the influence of entrenched interests, though the effectiveness of these measures has been debated.
Dos Santos’s legacy is complex, characterised by significant economic development, social inequalities, and political challenges. The MPLA’s ongoing influence reflects his enduring impact on Angola’s political fabric. José Eduardo dos Santos’s nearly four decades in power profoundly shaped Angola’s political, social, and economic landscape. His leadership during a period of significant turmoil and transition left a lasting legacy, the implications of which continue to influence Angola’s path forward.